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Saturday, 3 November 2012

GOOGLE ADSENSE

GOOGLE ADSENSE


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Monday, 29 October 2012

Mental illness

Mental illness

Mental disorder or mental illness are terms used to refer psychological pattern that occurs in an individual and is usually associated with distress or disability that is not expected as part of normal development or culture.
The recognition and understanding of mental disorders has changed over time.
Categories of diagnoses may include mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, eating disorders, developmental disorders, personality disorders, and many other categories.
In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause of mental disorders, although they are widely understood in terms of a diathesis-stress model and biopsychosocial model.
Mental disorders have been found to be common, with over a third of people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria at some point in their life. There are many different categories of mental disorder, and many different facets of human behavior and personality that can become disordered. The state of anxiety or fear can become disordered, so that it is unusually intense or generalized over a prolonged period of time.
Commonly recognized categories of anxiety disorders include specific phobia, Generalized anxiety disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Post-traumatic stress disorder.
Relatively long lasting affective states can also become disordered.
Mood disorder involving unusually intense and sustained sadness, melancholia or despair is know as Clinical depression (or Major depression), and may more generally be described as Emotional dysregulation.
Milder but prolonged depression can be diagnosed as dysthymia.
Bipolar disorder involves abnormally "high" or pressured mood states, known as mania or hypomania, alternating with normal or depressed mood.
Whether unipolar and bipolar mood phenomena represent distinct categories of disorder, or whether they usually mix and merge together along a dimension or spectrum of mood, is under debate in the scientific literature. Patterns of belief, language use and perception can become disordered.
Psychotic disorders centrally involving this domain include Schizophrenia and Delusional disorder.
Schizoaffective disorder is a category used for individuals showing aspects of both schizophrenia and affective disorders.
Schizotypy is a category used for individuals showing some of the traits associated with schizophrenia but without meeting cut-off criteria. The fundamental characteristics of a person that influence his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors across situations and time - can be seen as disordered due to being abnormally rigid and maladaptive.
Categorical schemes list a number of different personality disorders, such as those classed as eccentric (e.g.
Paranoid personality disorder, Schizoid personality disorder, Schizotypal personality disorder), those described as dramatic or emotional (Antisocial personality disorder, Borderline personality disorder, Histrionic personality disorder, Narcissistic personality disorder) or those seen as fear-related (Avoidant personality disorder, Dependent personality disorder, Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder).
For more information about the topic Mental illness, read the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles:
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Genetic code

Genetic code

The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells.
Specifically, the code defines a mapping between tri-nucleotide sequences called codons and amino acids; every triplet of nucleotides in a nucleic acid sequence specifies a single amino acid.
Because the vast majority of genes are encoded with exactly the same code, this particular code is often referred to as the canonical or standard genetic code, or simply the genetic code, though in fact there are many variant codes; thus, the canonical genetic code is not universal.
For example, in humans, protein synthesis in mitochondria relies on a genetic code that varies from the canonical code. The genome of an organism is inscribed in DNA, or in some viruses RNA.
The portion of the genome that codes for a protein or an RNA is referred to as a gene.
Those genes that code for proteins are composed of tri-nucleotide units called codons, each coding for a single amino acid.
Each nucleotide sub-unit consists of a phosphate, deoxyribose sugar and one of the 4 nitrogenous nucleotide bases.
The purine bases adenine (A) and guanine (G) are larger and consist of two aromatic rings.
The pyrimidine bases cytosine (C) and thymine (T) are smaller and consist of only one aromatic ring.
In the double-helix configuration, two strands of DNA are joined to each other by hydrogen bonds in an arrangement known as base pairing.
These bonds almost always form between an adenine base on one strand and a thymine on the other strand and between a cytosine base on one strand and a guanine base on the other.
This means that the number of A and T residues will be the same in a given double helix as will the number of G and C residues.
In RNA, thymine (T) is replaced by uracil (U), and the deoxyribose is substituted by ribose.
For more information about the topic Genetic code, read the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles:
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Sleep

Sleep

Sleep is the state of natural rest observed throughout the animal kingdom, in all mammals and birds, and in many reptiles, amphibians, and fish. In humans, other mammals, and many other animals that have been studied — such as fish, birds, ants, and fruit-flies — regular sleep is necessary for survival.
The capability for arousal from sleep is a protective mechanism and also necessary for health and survival. In mammals, the measurement of eye movement during sleep is used to divide sleep into two broad types: rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep.
Each type has a distinct set of associated physiological, neurological and psychological features. Sleep proceeds in cycles of REM and NREM phases.
In humans, this cycle is approximately 90 to 110 minutes.
Each phase may have a distinct physiological function.
Drugs such as alcohol and sleeping pills can suppress certain stages of sleep.
This can result in a sleep that exhibits loss of consciousness but does not fulfill its physiological functions. In REM, the brain is active and the body inactive, and this is when most dreaming occurs.
REM sleep is characterized by an electroencephalography (EEG) that has low voltage and mixed frequency, similar in appearance to the wakeful EEG.
During REM sleep there is loss of skeletal muscle tone, and an active sympathetic nervous system. In NREM sleep, the body is active and the brain inactive, and there is relatively little dreaming.
Non-REM encompasses four stages; stages 1 and 2 are considered 'light sleep', and 3 and 4 'deep sleep'.
They are differentiated solely using EEG, unlike REM sleep which is characterized by rapid eye movements and relative absence of muscle tone.
There are often limb movements, and parasomnia sleep walking occurs in non-REM sleep.
A cyclical alternating pattern may sometimes be observed during a stage.
For more information about the topic Sleep, read the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles:
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Diabetes

Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus, often simply diabetes, is a syndrome characterized by disordered metabolism and inappropriately high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) resulting from either low levels of the hormone insulin or from abnormal resistance to insulin's effects coupled with inadequate levels of insulin secretion to compensate.
The characteristic symptoms are excessive urine production (polyuria), excessive thirst and increased fluid intake (polydipsia), and blurred vision; these symptoms may be absent if the blood sugar is mildly elevated. Prolonged high blood glucose causes glucose absorption, which leads to changes in the shape of the lenses of the eyes, resulting in vision changes.
Blurred vision is a common complaint leading to a diabetes diagnosis; type 1 should always be suspected in cases of rapid vision change whereas type 2 is generally more gradual, but should still be suspected. The World Health Organization recognizes three main forms of diabetes mellitus: type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes (occurring during pregnancy), which have similar signs, symptoms, and consequences, but different causes and population distributions.
Ultimately, all forms are due to the beta cells of the pancreas being unable to produce sufficient insulin to prevent hyperglycemia.
Type 1 diabetes is usually due to autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic beta cells, which produce insulin.
Type 2 diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance in target tissues, but some impairment of beta cell function is necessary for its development.
Gestational diabetes is similar to type 2 diabetes, in that it involves insulin resistance; the hormones of pregnancy can cause insulin resistance in women genetically predisposed to developing this condition.
For more information about the topic Diabetes, read the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles:
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Heart failure

Heart failure

Congestive heart failure (CHF), also called congestive cardiac failure (CCF) or just heart failure, is a condition that can result from any structural or functional cardiac disorder that impairs the ability of the heart to fill with or pump a sufficient amount of blood throughout the body.
It is not to be confused with "cessation of heartbeat", which is known as asystole, or with cardiac arrest, which is the cessation of normal cardiac function in the face of heart disease. The symptoms depend largely on the side of the heart which is failing predominantly.
If both sides are functioning inadequately, symptoms and signs from both categories may be present. Given that the left side of the heart pumps blood from the lungs to the organs, failure to do so leads to congestion of the lung veins and symptoms that reflect this, as well as reduced supply of blood to the tissues.
The predominant respiratory symptom is shortness of breath on exertion - or in severe cases at rest - and easy fatigue-ability.
Poor circulation to the body leads to dizziness, confusion and diaphoresis and cool extremities at rest. The right side of the heart pumps blood returned from the tissues to the lungs to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen.
Hence, failure of the right side leads to congestion of peripheral tissues.
This may lead to peripheral edema or anasarca and nocturia (frequent nighttime urination when the fluid from the legs is returned to the bloodstream).
In more severe cases, ascites (fluid accumulation in the abdominal cavity) and hepatomegaly (painful enlargement of the liver) may develop. The treatment of CHF focuses on treating the symptoms and signs of CHF and preventing the progression of disease.
If there is a reversible cause of the heart failure (e.g.
infection, alcohol ingestion, anemia, thyrotoxicosis, arrhythmia, or hypertension), that should be addressed as well.
Reversible cause treatments can include exercise, eating healthy foods, reduction in salty foods, and abstinence of smoking.
For more information about the topic Heart failure, read the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles:
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Cancer

Cancer

Cancer is a group of diseases in which cells are aggressive (grow and divide without respect to normal limits), invasive (invade and destroy adjacent tissues), and/or metastatic (spread to other locations in the body).
These three malignant properties of cancers differentiate them from benign tumors, which are self-limited in their growth and do not invade or metastasize (although some benign tumor types are capable of becoming malignant).
Cancer may affect people at all ages, even fetuses, but risk for the more common varieties tends to increase with age.
Cancer causes about 13% of all deaths.
Apart from people, forms of cancer may affect animals and plants. Nearly all cancers are caused by abnormalities in the genetic material of the transformed cells.
These abnormalities may be due to the effects of carcinogens, such as tobacco smoke, radiation, chemicals, or infectious agents.
Other cancer-promoting genetic abnormalities may be randomly acquired through errors in DNA replication, or are inherited, and thus present in all cells from birth.
Complex interactions between carcinogens and the host genome may explain why only some develop cancer after exposure to a known carcinogen.
New aspects of the genetics of cancer pathogenesis, such as DNA methylation, and microRNAs are increasingly being recognized as important. Genetic abnormalities found in cancer typically affect two general classes of genes.
Cancer-promoting oncogenes are often activated in cancer cells, giving those cells new properties, such as hyperactive growth and division, protection against programmed cell death, loss of respect for normal tissue boundaries, and the ability to become established in diverse tissue environments.
Tumor suppressor genes are often inactivated in cancer cells, resulting in the loss of normal functions in those cells, such as accurate DNA replication, control over the cell cycle, orientation and adhesion within tissues, and interaction with protective cells of the immune system. Cancer is usually classified according to the tissue from which the cancerous cells originate, as well as the normal cell type they most resemble.
These are location and histology, respectively.
A definitive diagnosis usually requires the histologic examination of a tissue biopsy specimen by a pathologist, although the initial indication of malignancy can be symptoms or radiographic imaging abnormalities.
Most cancers can be treated and some cured, depending on the specific type, location, and stage.
Once diagnosed, cancer is usually treated with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
As research develops, treatments are becoming more specific for different varieties of cancer.
There has been significant progress in the development of targeted therapy drugs that act specifically on detectable molecular abnormalities in certain tumors, and which minimize damage to normal cells.
The prognosis of cancer patients is most influenced by the type of cancer, as well as the stage, or extent of the disease.
In addition, histologic grading and the presence of specific molecular markers can also be useful in establishing prognosis, as well as in determining individual treatments.
For more information about the topic Cancer, read the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles:
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